GENERATIONS

GENERATIONS  - Used vacuum tubes - Computers big and clumsy - Electricity consumption high - Electric failure occurred regularly - computers not very reliable - Large air conditioners was necessary because the computers generated heat - Programming in machine language They used rotating magnetic drums for internal storage, and punched cards for external storage. __ 1951 __ __UNIVAC __ Eckert and Mauchly completed the first commercial computer in the USA – the UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer). It consisted of a group of related machines which would put the client in a position to set-up an information system according to their needs. One could choose between high speed printers, magnetic drives (external memory), card to tape switches, and tape to card switches, high speed tape copiers and other equipment. It was a real all-purpose computer capable of numeric and alphanumeric calculations. It could print statements, sort accounts, predict the result of an election, and solve other mathematical problems. __Short Code __ A set of instructions called Short Code is developed for the UNIVAC. Programmers write the solution of a problem first in terms of mathematical equations. The equations are then translated symbol by symbol to two character codes. The comparison a=b+c is therefore translated to S0 03 S1 07 S2.
 * __First Generation of Computers (1951-1958) __**
 * SOFTWARE **

A program in the computer is used to convert each code to a binary digit. Every line is executed after the conversion. The conversion program was therefore a primitive interpreter. __MATH-MATIC __ In the 1950’s, computers were mainly used for scientific calculations. The calculations were usually done with large numbers. Floating point calculations could not be done automatically and were part of the program. Also, the specific places where numbers were stored in the memory, as well as all the input-output tasks had to be programmed in. A program was needed that would do more tasks automatically so that programmers could give more attention to the creative side of programming.
 * SOFTWARE **

Grace Hooper developed a language that calculated memory-addresses automatically, did input-output and had a library of standard mathematical calculations. The program first converted all codes to machine code before it was processed. She called the program a compiler and the programming language was later called MATH-MATIC.  __1951 __ __SAGE __ A computerised defense network was necessary for America. Large parts of Canada and America had no radar stations or control stations to monitor air traffic. Also, existing radar stations were only effective if there were few attackers who did not fly very fast or very low. MIT was asked to develop a network of radar stations. Computer monitors were developed to display the routes of aircraft and to accomplish direct communication with Whirlwind. Programs were written to enable Whirlwind to follow aircraft and to calculate new flight paths automatically. IBM was asked to build the SAGE computers and became leaders in real-time applications. SAGE was a 32-bit computer and used the technology of Whirlwind. They were the first computers to make use of backup computers and fault-tolerant systems. Every computer made use of two central processors, control units and read-write memory. The same input-output units and secondary memory was used. If one processor breaks, the second would take over automatically. A technique was also developed to trace weak tubes before they could burn out. SAGE computers were therefore very reliable. __1952 __ __EDVAC __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The EDVAC (Electronic Discreet Variable Computer) was completed after the idea was thought of in 1945. John Von Neumann wrote the first manuscript that formulated the ideas of Eckert, Mauchly, the EDVAC engineers and himself. The computer was designed with a central control unit which would calculate and output all mathematical and logical problems and a memory which could be written to and read. (RAM in modern terms) which would store programs and data. He encouraged the use of binary numbers and Boolean algebra. A disagreement over the patent of the EDVAC delayed the development of the machine and gave Britain the opportunity to develop the first stored program computer. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1953 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM 701 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM markets the first IBM 701, a binary computer developed in accordance with Von Neumann’s ideas. It had 400 tubes, a read-write electrostatic memory of 4096 36-bit words and could multiply two words in 456 microseconds. The machine was manufactured in sections and packed in pieces so that each part could be transported in lifts and carried through standard size doorways. Through this, IBM became part of the computer market.
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SAGE - Semi Automatic Ground Environment was developed **<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">.
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">EDVAC (Electronic Discreet Variable Computer) **

__<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1953 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The **Whirlwind** is equipped with magnetic core memory. It doubled the computers processing speed, data can be input four times faster, maintenance on the memory bank was decreased from 4 hours a day to two hours a week.

The Whirlwind was the source of many technological advances. It was the first real-time (can react immediately on an order or inquiry from a user) and contributed to the development of computer applications such as air traffic control, real-time simulations, industrial process control, ticket booking systems and banking systems. It lead to the development of multiprocessing where different programs are processed simultaneously by different parts of the machine and computer networks - the connecting of computers and other equipment to function as one system. It was the first 16-bit computer that made the development of mini-computers in the 1960’s possible. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1954 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">FORTRAN __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> In 1954 IBM developed the IBM 704, that was used for scientific programming. They wanted to make computers more user-friendly and increase sales. John Backus and the IBM-team began with the development of a high-level language that became known as FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator). It was easy to learn and use. For the first time, anyone who could think logically and wanted to program could use a computer. No knowledge of the internal workings of a computer was necessary. FORTRAN was sold with IBM computers and was also adapted for other computers, leading to the sales of computers and the development of other computer languages. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mid-1950's __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Batch processing (processing technique) __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Up till now, programmers executed the programs on the computers themselves. As soon as larger organisations such as universities and government institutions began setting up multi-million dollar computer centres, batch processing became necessary. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Computers were installed in air-conditioned rooms and trained computer operators input programs in batches. A programmer handed a packet of punch cards to the operator behind the counter. When a computer became available, the program was executed and a printout of the program output was available later in the day. If a comma or bracket in one line was incorrectly punched, there was just an indication on the printout showing that a syntax error had occurred in that line. The card was then replaced and the whole packet returned to the operator. To get results from a program could take days. Another approach was necessary. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1957 - 1958 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Transistors in computers __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">UNIVAC and the Philco Corporation introduce the first computers that use transistors in place of vacuum tubes. These new generation computers were an improvement in all areas over computers that used vacuum tubes. They were smaller, faster, more reliable and economical and much more powerful.
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">

Second Generation of Computers (1959-1963) __** <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> - Transistor replaces vacuum tube - Computers become smaller - Generate less heat - Electricity consumption lower - More reliable - Faster - Core memory developed - Magnetic tapes and disks used - First operating systems developed - Programming in machine language as well as assembly language __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">COBOL (programming language) __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> In the early sixties, computer languages were designed for a specific computer. Programs were not transferable and had to be changed for each and every computer on which they were used. Scientific calculations could be handled, but as businesses began using computers increasingly, a language became necessary to handle systems such as salary systems, faster. In 1960, a new language was developed to specifically handle the processing of data in a commercial organisation. It was called COBOL (Common Business Orientated Language). Processes such as adding, subtracting and the calculating of percentages on large amounts of data could be much done much easier. English words were used as instructions making it much more readable. COBOL was also machine-independent and could therefore be executed on more than one machine. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Late 1950’s, early 1960’s __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The use of computers grew as soon as a suitable language for commercial applications was found. Batch-processing no longer provided the requirements of users. A new processing method was needed. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Time-sharing (processing technique) __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> A temporary strategy that made use of the fact that computers could process very fast was used and provided a solution for the batch-processing problem. A time-sharing system consists of a computer linked to a number of terminals. Every terminal gives another user access to the computer. One user can use a financial program, another can execute a scientific program and yet another could be playing chess. The computer executes a portion of a user’s program for a few milliseconds and then changes over to the next user’s program. Although the computer actually executes only one task at a time, it appears to the user that they are accessing the computer individually. Commercial time-sharing services developed. A school or engineering firm could link a terminal via telephone lines to a computer and buy computer time whereby access time was charged per minute.
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **

__<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1961 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Integrated circuits __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The first integrated circuits or microchips are commercially available. An integrated circuit is a small chip (usually made of silicon) comprising of a network of electronic circuits made up of transistors and other components. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1963 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Mini-computer: PDP-8 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Digital introduces the first successful minicomputer – the PDP-8. It was about as large as a fridge and used transistors and magnetic core memory. It could only execute one program at a time, data is executed by means of 12-bit words (as opposed to the mainframe computers 32-bit words) and had a 4Kb memory. It was genuinely cheaper than a mainframe computer. More people could now afford their own computer. Scientists and engineers used PDP-8's. The navy installed them in submarines, factories used them for machine control and banks used them for processing of accounts. The usability and cost effectiveness of the PDP-8 contributed to distributed-processing. <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> - Integrated circuits developed with hundreds of transistors inside each one - Computers smaller, faster and more reliable - Power consumption lower - High-level languages appeared <span style="font-size: 110%; color: #ff0000; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They became more user friendly, you didn´t need the technical background to work with one. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> 1964 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Real-time reservation system __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM developed a real-time computerised ticket reservation system for American Airways. It was smaller than SAGE and was called SABRE (Semi-Automatic Business-Related Environment). It consisted of a duplex-computer and 1200 consoles linked to the control centre by means of telephone lines. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1964 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM’s System 360 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM introduced the System 360. It consisted of 6 processors and 40 peripheral units. More than 100 computers per month were ordered. Companies bought places on IBM’s waiting list from other manufacturers. Other companies manufactured peripheral units that were compatible to IBM-equipment. IBM’s idea was to develop a family of computers whereby just the processor could be changed to a larger, faster unit. The peripherals and software had to be compatible with all processors. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1964 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">BASIC (programming language) __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> A programming language was necessary that could be used in a time-sharing environment and that could serve as a training language. John G Kemeny and Thomas E Kurtz develop BASIC (Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) in 1964. It was very easy to learn and became the language that most people used. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1965 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Gordon Moore __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The semi-conductor pioneer, Gordon Moore (founder of Intel), predicted that the number of transistors that occurred on a microchip would double every year. It became known as Moore’s Law and is still valid today. In 1964 a chip of 2,5 mm2 had ten components. In 1970, one thousand components could fit onto the same sized chip. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1966 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The first computers to use integrated circuits were manufactured. Burroughs used integrated circuits in parts of two computers - the B2500 and the B3500. Control Data and NCR made two computers using only integrated circuits - the CDC 7600 and the Century series respectively. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> __1968__ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Intel __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Intel was founded (INTegrated Electronics). They developed more sophisticated memory chips. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1968 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Magnetic core memory __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Magnetic Core Memory was replaced by a microchip. The first 256 bit RAM microchips, and later the first 1Kb RAM (1024 byte) chips, caused the disappearance of Magnetic Core Memory that was used since the mid 1950's. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> __1969__ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> IBM System/370 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM replaced their System/360 with the System/370 that only used integrated circuits.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Third Generation of Computers (1964-1979) __**
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Real time proccessing: Data is updated when the transaction takes place. **
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **

<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;">

Fourth Generation Computers __<span style="font-size: 11pt; background: yellow; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-highlight: yellow;">The Microcomputer Revolution __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> - Integrated circuits, smaller and faster - Micro computer series such as IBM and APPLE developed - Portable computers developed - Great development in data communication - Different types of secondary memory with high storage capacity and fast access developed <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> The critical components of a complete computer were held on a tiny silicon chip. this caused a radical change in the appearance, capability and availability of the computers.

__<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1971 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Microprocessor __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Intel developed the first microprocessor - a CPU on a microchip. It was called the 4004 and consisted of 2 250 transistors capable of processing 4 bits at a rate of 60 000 transactions per second. It could not be used as the CPU of a mini computer but was suitable for use in pocket calculators and in smaller electrical appliances. Packaged with other chips such as 2Kb ROM and 20 bit RAM ,and mounted on a circuit board, the chip could execute any program that Intel engineers placed in the ROM. The 4004 could therefore be programmed to do far more than a basic pocket calculator.

__<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> 1971 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Pascal (programming language) __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Computer studies developed as a separate science and this led to the development of standards. Early programming languages allowed unstructured programs to be written and this in turn made the debugging of those programs very difficult. Niklaus Wirth - a Swedish computer scientist - developed the Pascal language in 1971. This language was specifically designed to teach the concepts of structured programming. Pascal remains the most popular language for learning the basic principles of good programming. It is also a multi-purpose language and can easily be used for both scientific and commercial applications. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> __1972__ 8008 Intel released the 8008 - an 8 bit processor powerful enough to be used as the CPU of a minicomputer. There were, however, many technical problems with the 8008. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1972 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">CP/M (Operating system) __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The first operating system for microcomputers was developed by Gary Kildall and John Torode. Torode developed hardware to connect a diskette (floppy disk) to the CPU. Kildall wrote the program code to enable the CPU to read from the disk. The program was called CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers). CP/M could only be used with 8080, 8085 and Z80 (a processor made by Zilog) processors. The Z80 became the standard processor for CP/M machines and programs were written to be compatible with CP/M. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1974 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">8080 Microprocessor __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The 8080 microprocessor was released - it made the development of the microcomputer possible. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1974 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">MARK-8 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Johnathan Titus (a chemist with an interest in electronics) ordered an 8008 processor from Intel. He built a computer with 6 circuit boards which had 256 bytes RAM. The RAM could be expanded to 16 Kb but the machine had no ROM because Intel would have charged too much to manufacture it. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Each instruction had to be entered by means of switches. One byte at a time could be entered by manipulating a set of switches. A panel of lights produced the output of results. In July 1974, Titus published an article in Radio- Electronics in which he announced the MARK-8 to the world and offered the circuit boards and a set of assembly instructions for sale. The other components could be bought from Intel. Nearly 2000 MARK-8's were assembled. MARK-8 Computer Clubs were founded and some enthusiasts built their own peripherals, such as punched tape readers that made programming easier. Although the MARK-8 was mainly used by electronics enthusiasts, it did prove that there was a very real demand for smaller, personal computers. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1974 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Motorola’s 6800 processor __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Motorola developed a processor - the 6800 - which could perform all the functions of the 8080. It had similar abilities, but used different instructions to execute the same functions. then program compatibility problems started. Programs written for the 6800, would not work on the 8080 and vice-versa. The processor therefore determined the software that could be used on a computer. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1975 - January __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Altair __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Popular Mechanics published an article which announced the development of a true personal computer - the Altair 8800. This was developed by MITS (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems) in Albuquerque, New Mexico. It used the 8-bit Intel 8080 microprocessor and was made available in a complete kit, including all components and assembly instructions. 256 bytes of RAM was available. 16 slots were left open to include more RAM when necessary. Thousands of orders were received. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The Altair could be programmed by entering the machine code, one bit at a time, through the toggling of switches. One of the first programs written for the Altair was a game in which lights flashed in a specific pattern on the front panel. The user had to repeat the pattern, which grew increasingly complex as the game progressed.
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **

__BASIC for the Altair__
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">

The Altair would not have been generally usable without the development of a high level programming language. Paul Allen - a programmer - saw the article and contacted his buddy Bill Gates - a student at Harvard University. Together they contacted MITS and offered to write a BASIC interpreter for the Altair. Their offer was accepted and 6 weeks later they delivered the program. Allen became MITS programming director and Bill Gates quit Harvard to become a freelance programmer. They went on to found Microsoft Corporation in Washington. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1975 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Apple __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs founded the Apple Company. They built a microcomputer motherboard that used a 8-bit processor. The motherboard was a single circuit board and held 4 Kb RAM. It was not as powerful as the Altair, but it was cheaper and less complicated. It contained circuitry that allowed it to be connected to a monitor. Only people who knew their way around electronics, could operate this computer, but it still was a great success. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> 1976 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">MOS 6502 processor __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">MOS technologies (a manufacturer of microchips) announced the development of the 6502 processor. It was an 8-bit processor with very few registers and a 16-bit address bus. It was used by Wozniak in the design of the Apple II and also in other popular computers such as the Commodore PET, Commodore 64 and the Atari. It facilitated the programming of graphics and also executed graphics faster than other processors available at the time. After it's release, the development of computer games proceeded rapidly. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> 1977 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Apple II __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Wozniak and Jobs released the Apple II. It was cheap, had 16 Kb RAM and was ideal for playing video games. It was sold with a keyboard, a power supply and included 8 slots for peripherals. It could therefore be used with a wider variety of peripherals and programs. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> 1978 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Intel’s 8086 processor __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Intel manufactured the 8086 processor that contained 16-bit registers and used segmented memory addressing. All x86 processors had to be compatible with the set of instructions, first used in this processor. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1979 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Motorola’s 68000 processor __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Motorola released the 68000 which was used in the Apple Lisa and Macintosh computers. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> __First spreadsheet : VisiCalc__
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Fourth Generation of Computers (1979-present) __**
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **

Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston of the Software Arts Company developed the first spreadsheet program for use on microcomputers, namely VisiCalc. It was distributed by Personal Software for use on all Apple computers. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Word processor : WordStar __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The word processing program WordStar was developed by Seymour Rubenstein's firm MicroPro and became the best seller in the CP/M operating environment. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1981 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM PC __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM announced it's first Personal Computer - the IBM PC - an Intel 8088 processor containing 16-bit registers and 8-bit busses to power the machine. Only 64Kb RAM was available and this was soldered onto the motherboard. No expansion of memory was possible. It was distributed with a monochrome monitor and originally 2 floppy drives. 35 000 PC's were sold in 1981 and in 1993 the figure rose to 800 000. Other PC compatible computers were developed. Some firms supplied programs and peripherals that could be used with the IBM PC. The PC became widely accepted. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1981 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">MS-DOS (operating system) __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-align: center; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Microsoft wrote DOS on IBM's request. Bill Gates did not sell the program to IBM (although he was offered a very attractively large sum of money) but licensed it to IBM at a low fee and reserved the rights to license the software to anyone else. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1982 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Intel’s 286 processor __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Intel announced the 80286 microprocessor. This was used in the IBM PC AT (Advanced Technology). It operated at rates ranging from 8 - 20 MHz and was up to 6 times faster than the 4.77 MHz PC. It could also address up to 16Mb of RAM. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;">
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **

__<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> 1983 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Apple’s Lisa __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Apple announced the Lisa, a computer that used a mouse to move a cursor on the screen in order to select commands. The Lisa was the first commercial computer to use a Graphical User Interface (GUI). Commands were not typed in on the keyboard but selected from a series of menus or pictures (icons). The Lisa was not a great success. It was quickly followed by the more economical and easier to use Macintosh, that also used the GUI, and was a commercial success. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Programs had to be written specifically for the Macintosh. Microsoft also developed programs for this platform. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1983 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM PC XT __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM announced the PC XT (eXtended Technology). Memory could be expanded to 640 Kb and it featured:

- 4,77 MHz processor speed - Double floppy disks - MS DOS version 3.3 - Later versions also had 10 or 20 Mb hard disk drives available. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> __1983__ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Turbo Pascal (programming language) Borland __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> The American programming company Borland was founded by a French mathematician - Phillipe Kahn. Borland created and marketed programs such as Turbo Pascal, Paradox, dBASE and Quattro Pro. __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">1984 __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM PC AT __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">IBM manufactured the IBM PC/AT (Advanced Technology). It used the Intel 80286 processor and featured:
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">SOFTWARE **

- 16-bit registers and 24-bit address busses - 12, 16 and 20 Mhz processor speed - 1 Mb primary memory - 40 Mb hard disk drive - DOS 3.2 and higher. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> 1990 __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> Microsoft released Windows 3.0. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-decoration: none; msoansilanguage: EN-US;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Fifth Generation of Computers __ __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Current and Future __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The transition from one computer generation to the next takes years. It is also very difficult to be precise about the end of one generation and the beginning of the next generation. Although fourth-generation computers generally are used in the 1990's, some computers and computer systems have some properties of computers which are considered to be of the fifth-generation. The most noticeable characteristic of fifth-generation computers is the ability to apply previously gained knowledge, draw conclusions and then execute a task. The computer will, in short, simulate the human ability to reason. Computers will have to be able to classify information, search large databases rapidly, plan, apply the rules which humans regard as clear thinking, make decisions and learn from their mistakes. Input devices for fifth-generation computers could also include speech and visual recognition. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Applications for fifth-generation computers __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">- Intelligent robots that could ‘see’ their environment (visual input - e.g. a video camera) and could be programmed to carry out certain tasks without step-by-step instructions. The robot should be able to decide for itself how the task should be accomplished, based on the observations it made of its environment.
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> SOFTWARE **
 * <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Windows 3.0 (operating system) **

- Intelligent systems that could control the route of a missile and defence-systems that could fend off attacks. - Word processors that could be controlled by means of speech recognition.

- Programs that could translate documents from one language to another. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Some technological developments that could make the development of fifth-generation computers possible, include: __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> - Parallel-processing - many processors are grouped to function as one large group processor.

- Superconductors - a superconductor is a conductor through which electricity can travel without any resistance resulting in faster transfer of information between the components of a computer. <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-spacerun: yes; msoansilanguage: EN-US; msospacerun: yes;"> __<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Today's computers already display some of the characteristics of fifth-generation computers. __ <span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> - Expert Systems helps doctors to reach a diagnosis by following the logical steps of problem solving just as if the doctor would have done it himself. - Speech recognition systems, capable of recognizing dictation and entering the text into a word processor, are already available.

Fifth generation computers are supercomputers designed to work as the human brain, doing multiple streams of activity at once. Using artificial intelligence, these computers will soon be able to process voice, images and large quantities of data from different sources.

I have highlighted the important information for this work. You have to keep in mind that the porfolio you are going to send will have a limit of 800 to 1000 words so you should practice synthesising your work. When you use a textual piece from your source you have to use quotation marks. Your porfolio will be run through a software that compares you text with other known sources (specially the ones you use) to see if the text has been copied....this is considered a very important isuue, so be careful.